Linus Torvalds | 1da177e | 2005-04-16 15:20:36 -0700 | [diff] [blame] | 1 | <?xml version="1.0" encoding="UTF-8"?> |
| 2 | <!DOCTYPE book PUBLIC "-//OASIS//DTD DocBook XML V4.1.2//EN" |
| 3 | "http://www.oasis-open.org/docbook/xml/4.1.2/docbookx.dtd" []> |
| 4 | |
| 5 | <book id="V4LGuide"> |
| 6 | <bookinfo> |
| 7 | <title>Video4Linux Programming</title> |
| 8 | |
| 9 | <authorgroup> |
| 10 | <author> |
| 11 | <firstname>Alan</firstname> |
| 12 | <surname>Cox</surname> |
| 13 | <affiliation> |
| 14 | <address> |
| 15 | <email>alan@redhat.com</email> |
| 16 | </address> |
| 17 | </affiliation> |
| 18 | </author> |
| 19 | </authorgroup> |
| 20 | |
| 21 | <copyright> |
| 22 | <year>2000</year> |
| 23 | <holder>Alan Cox</holder> |
| 24 | </copyright> |
| 25 | |
| 26 | <legalnotice> |
| 27 | <para> |
| 28 | This documentation is free software; you can redistribute |
| 29 | it and/or modify it under the terms of the GNU General Public |
| 30 | License as published by the Free Software Foundation; either |
| 31 | version 2 of the License, or (at your option) any later |
| 32 | version. |
| 33 | </para> |
| 34 | |
| 35 | <para> |
| 36 | This program is distributed in the hope that it will be |
| 37 | useful, but WITHOUT ANY WARRANTY; without even the implied |
| 38 | warranty of MERCHANTABILITY or FITNESS FOR A PARTICULAR PURPOSE. |
| 39 | See the GNU General Public License for more details. |
| 40 | </para> |
| 41 | |
| 42 | <para> |
| 43 | You should have received a copy of the GNU General Public |
| 44 | License along with this program; if not, write to the Free |
| 45 | Software Foundation, Inc., 59 Temple Place, Suite 330, Boston, |
| 46 | MA 02111-1307 USA |
| 47 | </para> |
| 48 | |
| 49 | <para> |
| 50 | For more details see the file COPYING in the source |
| 51 | distribution of Linux. |
| 52 | </para> |
| 53 | </legalnotice> |
| 54 | </bookinfo> |
| 55 | |
| 56 | <toc></toc> |
| 57 | |
| 58 | <chapter id="intro"> |
| 59 | <title>Introduction</title> |
| 60 | <para> |
| 61 | Parts of this document first appeared in Linux Magazine under a |
| 62 | ninety day exclusivity. |
| 63 | </para> |
| 64 | <para> |
| 65 | Video4Linux is intended to provide a common programming interface |
| 66 | for the many TV and capture cards now on the market, as well as |
| 67 | parallel port and USB video cameras. Radio, teletext decoders and |
| 68 | vertical blanking data interfaces are also provided. |
| 69 | </para> |
| 70 | </chapter> |
| 71 | <chapter id="radio"> |
| 72 | <title>Radio Devices</title> |
| 73 | <para> |
| 74 | There are a wide variety of radio interfaces available for PC's, and these |
| 75 | are generally very simple to program. The biggest problem with supporting |
| 76 | such devices is normally extracting documentation from the vendor. |
| 77 | </para> |
| 78 | <para> |
| 79 | The radio interface supports a simple set of control ioctls standardised |
| 80 | across all radio and tv interfaces. It does not support read or write, which |
| 81 | are used for video streams. The reason radio cards do not allow you to read |
| 82 | the audio stream into an application is that without exception they provide |
| 83 | a connection on to a soundcard. Soundcards can be used to read the radio |
| 84 | data just fine. |
| 85 | </para> |
| 86 | <sect1 id="registerradio"> |
| 87 | <title>Registering Radio Devices</title> |
| 88 | <para> |
| 89 | The Video4linux core provides an interface for registering devices. The |
| 90 | first step in writing our radio card driver is to register it. |
| 91 | </para> |
| 92 | <programlisting> |
| 93 | |
| 94 | |
| 95 | static struct video_device my_radio |
| 96 | { |
| 97 | "My radio", |
| 98 | VID_TYPE_TUNER, |
| 99 | VID_HARDWARE_MYRADIO, |
| 100 | radio_open. |
| 101 | radio_close, |
| 102 | NULL, /* no read */ |
| 103 | NULL, /* no write */ |
| 104 | NULL, /* no poll */ |
| 105 | radio_ioctl, |
| 106 | NULL, /* no special init function */ |
| 107 | NULL /* no private data */ |
| 108 | }; |
| 109 | |
| 110 | |
| 111 | </programlisting> |
| 112 | <para> |
| 113 | This declares our video4linux device driver interface. The VID_TYPE_ value |
| 114 | defines what kind of an interface we are, and defines basic capabilities. |
| 115 | </para> |
| 116 | <para> |
| 117 | The only defined value relevant for a radio card is VID_TYPE_TUNER which |
| 118 | indicates that the device can be tuned. Clearly our radio is going to have some |
| 119 | way to change channel so it is tuneable. |
| 120 | </para> |
| 121 | <para> |
| 122 | The VID_HARDWARE_ types are unique to each device. Numbers are assigned by |
| 123 | <email>alan@redhat.com</email> when device drivers are going to be released. Until then you |
| 124 | can pull a suitably large number out of your hat and use it. 10000 should be |
| 125 | safe for a very long time even allowing for the huge number of vendors |
| 126 | making new and different radio cards at the moment. |
| 127 | </para> |
| 128 | <para> |
| 129 | We declare an open and close routine, but we do not need read or write, |
| 130 | which are used to read and write video data to or from the card itself. As |
| 131 | we have no read or write there is no poll function. |
| 132 | </para> |
| 133 | <para> |
| 134 | The private initialise function is run when the device is registered. In |
| 135 | this driver we've already done all the work needed. The final pointer is a |
| 136 | private data pointer that can be used by the device driver to attach and |
| 137 | retrieve private data structures. We set this field "priv" to NULL for |
| 138 | the moment. |
| 139 | </para> |
| 140 | <para> |
| 141 | Having the structure defined is all very well but we now need to register it |
| 142 | with the kernel. |
| 143 | </para> |
| 144 | <programlisting> |
| 145 | |
| 146 | |
| 147 | static int io = 0x320; |
| 148 | |
| 149 | int __init myradio_init(struct video_init *v) |
| 150 | { |
| 151 | if(!request_region(io, MY_IO_SIZE, "myradio")) |
| 152 | { |
| 153 | printk(KERN_ERR |
| 154 | "myradio: port 0x%03X is in use.\n", io); |
| 155 | return -EBUSY; |
| 156 | } |
| 157 | |
| 158 | if(video_device_register(&my_radio, VFL_TYPE_RADIO)==-1) { |
| 159 | release_region(io, MY_IO_SIZE); |
| 160 | return -EINVAL; |
| 161 | } |
| 162 | return 0; |
| 163 | } |
| 164 | |
| 165 | </programlisting> |
| 166 | <para> |
| 167 | The first stage of the initialisation, as is normally the case, is to check |
| 168 | that the I/O space we are about to fiddle with doesn't belong to some other |
| 169 | driver. If it is we leave well alone. If the user gives the address of the |
| 170 | wrong device then we will spot this. These policies will generally avoid |
| 171 | crashing the machine. |
| 172 | </para> |
| 173 | <para> |
| 174 | Now we ask the Video4Linux layer to register the device for us. We hand it |
| 175 | our carefully designed video_device structure and also tell it which group |
| 176 | of devices we want it registered with. In this case VFL_TYPE_RADIO. |
| 177 | </para> |
| 178 | <para> |
| 179 | The types available are |
| 180 | </para> |
| 181 | <table frame="all"><title>Device Types</title> |
| 182 | <tgroup cols="3" align="left"> |
| 183 | <tbody> |
| 184 | <row> |
| 185 | <entry>VFL_TYPE_RADIO</entry><entry>/dev/radio{n}</entry><entry> |
| 186 | |
| 187 | Radio devices are assigned in this block. As with all of these |
| 188 | selections the actual number assignment is done by the video layer |
| 189 | accordijng to what is free.</entry> |
| 190 | </row><row> |
| 191 | <entry>VFL_TYPE_GRABBER</entry><entry>/dev/video{n}</entry><entry> |
| 192 | Video capture devices and also -- counter-intuitively for the name -- |
| 193 | hardware video playback devices such as MPEG2 cards.</entry> |
| 194 | </row><row> |
| 195 | <entry>VFL_TYPE_VBI</entry><entry>/dev/vbi{n}</entry><entry> |
| 196 | The VBI devices capture the hidden lines on a television picture |
| 197 | that carry further information like closed caption data, teletext |
| 198 | (primarily in Europe) and now Intercast and the ATVEC internet |
| 199 | television encodings.</entry> |
| 200 | </row><row> |
| 201 | <entry>VFL_TYPE_VTX</entry><entry>/dev/vtx[n}</entry><entry> |
| 202 | VTX is 'Videotext' also known as 'Teletext'. This is a system for |
| 203 | sending numbered, 40x25, mostly textual page images over the hidden |
| 204 | lines. Unlike the /dev/vbi interfaces, this is for 'smart' decoder |
| 205 | chips. (The use of the word smart here has to be taken in context, |
| 206 | the smartest teletext chips are fairly dumb pieces of technology). |
| 207 | </entry> |
| 208 | </row> |
| 209 | </tbody> |
| 210 | </tgroup> |
| 211 | </table> |
| 212 | <para> |
| 213 | We are most definitely a radio. |
| 214 | </para> |
| 215 | <para> |
| 216 | Finally we allocate our I/O space so that nobody treads on us and return 0 |
| 217 | to signify general happiness with the state of the universe. |
| 218 | </para> |
| 219 | </sect1> |
| 220 | <sect1 id="openradio"> |
| 221 | <title>Opening And Closing The Radio</title> |
| 222 | |
| 223 | <para> |
| 224 | The functions we declared in our video_device are mostly very simple. |
| 225 | Firstly we can drop in what is basically standard code for open and close. |
| 226 | </para> |
| 227 | <programlisting> |
| 228 | |
| 229 | |
| 230 | static int users = 0; |
| 231 | |
Alexey Dobriyan | 32357988 | 2006-01-15 02:12:54 +0100 | [diff] [blame] | 232 | static int radio_open(struct video_device *dev, int flags) |
Linus Torvalds | 1da177e | 2005-04-16 15:20:36 -0700 | [diff] [blame] | 233 | { |
| 234 | if(users) |
| 235 | return -EBUSY; |
| 236 | users++; |
| 237 | return 0; |
| 238 | } |
| 239 | |
| 240 | </programlisting> |
| 241 | <para> |
| 242 | At open time we need to do nothing but check if someone else is also using |
| 243 | the radio card. If nobody is using it we make a note that we are using it, |
| 244 | then we ensure that nobody unloads our driver on us. |
| 245 | </para> |
| 246 | <programlisting> |
| 247 | |
| 248 | |
| 249 | static int radio_close(struct video_device *dev) |
| 250 | { |
| 251 | users--; |
| 252 | } |
| 253 | |
| 254 | </programlisting> |
| 255 | <para> |
| 256 | At close time we simply need to reduce the user count and allow the module |
| 257 | to become unloadable. |
| 258 | </para> |
| 259 | <para> |
| 260 | If you are sharp you will have noticed neither the open nor the close |
| 261 | routines attempt to reset or change the radio settings. This is intentional. |
| 262 | It allows an application to set up the radio and exit. It avoids a user |
| 263 | having to leave an application running all the time just to listen to the |
| 264 | radio. |
| 265 | </para> |
| 266 | </sect1> |
| 267 | <sect1 id="ioctlradio"> |
| 268 | <title>The Ioctl Interface</title> |
| 269 | <para> |
| 270 | This leaves the ioctl routine, without which the driver will not be |
| 271 | terribly useful to anyone. |
| 272 | </para> |
| 273 | <programlisting> |
| 274 | |
| 275 | |
| 276 | static int radio_ioctl(struct video_device *dev, unsigned int cmd, void *arg) |
| 277 | { |
| 278 | switch(cmd) |
| 279 | { |
| 280 | case VIDIOCGCAP: |
| 281 | { |
| 282 | struct video_capability v; |
| 283 | v.type = VID_TYPE_TUNER; |
| 284 | v.channels = 1; |
| 285 | v.audios = 1; |
| 286 | v.maxwidth = 0; |
| 287 | v.minwidth = 0; |
| 288 | v.maxheight = 0; |
| 289 | v.minheight = 0; |
| 290 | strcpy(v.name, "My Radio"); |
| 291 | if(copy_to_user(arg, &v, sizeof(v))) |
| 292 | return -EFAULT; |
| 293 | return 0; |
| 294 | } |
| 295 | |
| 296 | </programlisting> |
| 297 | <para> |
| 298 | VIDIOCGCAP is the first ioctl all video4linux devices must support. It |
| 299 | allows the applications to find out what sort of a card they have found and |
| 300 | to figure out what they want to do about it. The fields in the structure are |
| 301 | </para> |
| 302 | <table frame="all"><title>struct video_capability fields</title> |
| 303 | <tgroup cols="2" align="left"> |
| 304 | <tbody> |
| 305 | <row> |
| 306 | <entry>name</entry><entry>The device text name. This is intended for the user.</entry> |
| 307 | </row><row> |
| 308 | <entry>channels</entry><entry>The number of different channels you can tune on |
| 309 | this card. It could even by zero for a card that has |
| 310 | no tuning capability. For our simple FM radio it is 1. |
| 311 | An AM/FM radio would report 2.</entry> |
| 312 | </row><row> |
| 313 | <entry>audios</entry><entry>The number of audio inputs on this device. For our |
| 314 | radio there is only one audio input.</entry> |
| 315 | </row><row> |
| 316 | <entry>minwidth,minheight</entry><entry>The smallest size the card is capable of capturing |
| 317 | images in. We set these to zero. Radios do not |
| 318 | capture pictures</entry> |
| 319 | </row><row> |
| 320 | <entry>maxwidth,maxheight</entry><entry>The largest image size the card is capable of |
| 321 | capturing. For our radio we report 0. |
| 322 | </entry> |
| 323 | </row><row> |
| 324 | <entry>type</entry><entry>This reports the capabilities of the device, and |
| 325 | matches the field we filled in in the struct |
| 326 | video_device when registering.</entry> |
| 327 | </row> |
| 328 | </tbody> |
| 329 | </tgroup> |
| 330 | </table> |
| 331 | <para> |
| 332 | Having filled in the fields, we use copy_to_user to copy the structure into |
| 333 | the users buffer. If the copy fails we return an EFAULT to the application |
| 334 | so that it knows it tried to feed us garbage. |
| 335 | </para> |
| 336 | <para> |
| 337 | The next pair of ioctl operations select which tuner is to be used and let |
| 338 | the application find the tuner properties. We have only a single FM band |
| 339 | tuner in our example device. |
| 340 | </para> |
| 341 | <programlisting> |
| 342 | |
| 343 | |
| 344 | case VIDIOCGTUNER: |
| 345 | { |
| 346 | struct video_tuner v; |
| 347 | if(copy_from_user(&v, arg, sizeof(v))!=0) |
| 348 | return -EFAULT; |
| 349 | if(v.tuner) |
| 350 | return -EINVAL; |
| 351 | v.rangelow=(87*16000); |
| 352 | v.rangehigh=(108*16000); |
| 353 | v.flags = VIDEO_TUNER_LOW; |
| 354 | v.mode = VIDEO_MODE_AUTO; |
| 355 | v.signal = 0xFFFF; |
| 356 | strcpy(v.name, "FM"); |
| 357 | if(copy_to_user(&v, arg, sizeof(v))!=0) |
| 358 | return -EFAULT; |
| 359 | return 0; |
| 360 | } |
| 361 | |
| 362 | </programlisting> |
| 363 | <para> |
| 364 | The VIDIOCGTUNER ioctl allows applications to query a tuner. The application |
| 365 | sets the tuner field to the tuner number it wishes to query. The query does |
| 366 | not change the tuner that is being used, it merely enquires about the tuner |
| 367 | in question. |
| 368 | </para> |
| 369 | <para> |
| 370 | We have exactly one tuner so after copying the user buffer to our temporary |
| 371 | structure we complain if they asked for a tuner other than tuner 0. |
| 372 | </para> |
| 373 | <para> |
| 374 | The video_tuner structure has the following fields |
| 375 | </para> |
| 376 | <table frame="all"><title>struct video_tuner fields</title> |
| 377 | <tgroup cols="2" align="left"> |
| 378 | <tbody> |
| 379 | <row> |
| 380 | <entry>int tuner</entry><entry>The number of the tuner in question</entry> |
| 381 | </row><row> |
| 382 | <entry>char name[32]</entry><entry>A text description of this tuner. "FM" will do fine. |
| 383 | This is intended for the application.</entry> |
| 384 | </row><row> |
| 385 | <entry>u32 flags</entry> |
| 386 | <entry>Tuner capability flags</entry> |
| 387 | </row> |
| 388 | <row> |
| 389 | <entry>u16 mode</entry><entry>The current reception mode</entry> |
| 390 | |
| 391 | </row><row> |
| 392 | <entry>u16 signal</entry><entry>The signal strength scaled between 0 and 65535. If |
| 393 | a device cannot tell the signal strength it should |
| 394 | report 65535. Many simple cards contain only a |
| 395 | signal/no signal bit. Such cards will report either |
| 396 | 0 or 65535.</entry> |
| 397 | |
| 398 | </row><row> |
| 399 | <entry>u32 rangelow, rangehigh</entry><entry> |
| 400 | The range of frequencies supported by the radio |
| 401 | or TV. It is scaled according to the VIDEO_TUNER_LOW |
| 402 | flag.</entry> |
| 403 | |
| 404 | </row> |
| 405 | </tbody> |
| 406 | </tgroup> |
| 407 | </table> |
| 408 | |
| 409 | <table frame="all"><title>struct video_tuner flags</title> |
| 410 | <tgroup cols="2" align="left"> |
| 411 | <tbody> |
| 412 | <row> |
| 413 | <entry>VIDEO_TUNER_PAL</entry><entry>A PAL TV tuner</entry> |
| 414 | </row><row> |
| 415 | <entry>VIDEO_TUNER_NTSC</entry><entry>An NTSC (US) TV tuner</entry> |
| 416 | </row><row> |
| 417 | <entry>VIDEO_TUNER_SECAM</entry><entry>A SECAM (French) TV tuner</entry> |
| 418 | </row><row> |
| 419 | <entry>VIDEO_TUNER_LOW</entry><entry> |
| 420 | The tuner frequency is scaled in 1/16th of a KHz |
| 421 | steps. If not it is in 1/16th of a MHz steps |
| 422 | </entry> |
| 423 | </row><row> |
| 424 | <entry>VIDEO_TUNER_NORM</entry><entry>The tuner can set its format</entry> |
| 425 | </row><row> |
| 426 | <entry>VIDEO_TUNER_STEREO_ON</entry><entry>The tuner is currently receiving a stereo signal</entry> |
| 427 | </row> |
| 428 | </tbody> |
| 429 | </tgroup> |
| 430 | </table> |
| 431 | |
| 432 | <table frame="all"><title>struct video_tuner modes</title> |
| 433 | <tgroup cols="2" align="left"> |
| 434 | <tbody> |
| 435 | <row> |
| 436 | <entry>VIDEO_MODE_PAL</entry><entry>PAL Format</entry> |
| 437 | </row><row> |
| 438 | <entry>VIDEO_MODE_NTSC</entry><entry>NTSC Format (USA)</entry> |
| 439 | </row><row> |
| 440 | <entry>VIDEO_MODE_SECAM</entry><entry>French Format</entry> |
| 441 | </row><row> |
| 442 | <entry>VIDEO_MODE_AUTO</entry><entry>A device that does not need to do |
| 443 | TV format switching</entry> |
| 444 | </row> |
| 445 | </tbody> |
| 446 | </tgroup> |
| 447 | </table> |
| 448 | <para> |
| 449 | The settings for the radio card are thus fairly simple. We report that we |
| 450 | are a tuner called "FM" for FM radio. In order to get the best tuning |
| 451 | resolution we report VIDEO_TUNER_LOW and select tuning to 1/16th of KHz. Its |
| 452 | unlikely our card can do that resolution but it is a fair bet the card can |
| 453 | do better than 1/16th of a MHz. VIDEO_TUNER_LOW is appropriate to almost all |
| 454 | radio usage. |
| 455 | </para> |
| 456 | <para> |
| 457 | We report that the tuner automatically handles deciding what format it is |
| 458 | receiving - true enough as it only handles FM radio. Our example card is |
| 459 | also incapable of detecting stereo or signal strengths so it reports a |
| 460 | strength of 0xFFFF (maximum) and no stereo detected. |
| 461 | </para> |
| 462 | <para> |
| 463 | To finish off we set the range that can be tuned to be 87-108Mhz, the normal |
| 464 | FM broadcast radio range. It is important to find out what the card is |
| 465 | actually capable of tuning. It is easy enough to simply use the FM broadcast |
| 466 | range. Unfortunately if you do this you will discover the FM broadcast |
| 467 | ranges in the USA, Europe and Japan are all subtly different and some users |
| 468 | cannot receive all the stations they wish. |
| 469 | </para> |
| 470 | <para> |
| 471 | The application also needs to be able to set the tuner it wishes to use. In |
| 472 | our case, with a single tuner this is rather simple to arrange. |
| 473 | </para> |
| 474 | <programlisting> |
| 475 | |
| 476 | case VIDIOCSTUNER: |
| 477 | { |
| 478 | struct video_tuner v; |
| 479 | if(copy_from_user(&v, arg, sizeof(v))) |
| 480 | return -EFAULT; |
| 481 | if(v.tuner != 0) |
| 482 | return -EINVAL; |
| 483 | return 0; |
| 484 | } |
| 485 | |
| 486 | </programlisting> |
| 487 | <para> |
| 488 | We copy the user supplied structure into kernel memory so we can examine it. |
| 489 | If the user has selected a tuner other than zero we reject the request. If |
| 490 | they wanted tuner 0 then, surprisingly enough, that is the current tuner already. |
| 491 | </para> |
| 492 | <para> |
| 493 | The next two ioctls we need to provide are to get and set the frequency of |
| 494 | the radio. These both use an unsigned long argument which is the frequency. |
| 495 | The scale of the frequency depends on the VIDEO_TUNER_LOW flag as I |
| 496 | mentioned earlier on. Since we have VIDEO_TUNER_LOW set this will be in |
| 497 | 1/16ths of a KHz. |
| 498 | </para> |
| 499 | <programlisting> |
| 500 | |
| 501 | static unsigned long current_freq; |
| 502 | |
| 503 | |
| 504 | |
| 505 | case VIDIOCGFREQ: |
| 506 | if(copy_to_user(arg, &current_freq, |
| 507 | sizeof(unsigned long)) |
| 508 | return -EFAULT; |
| 509 | return 0; |
| 510 | |
| 511 | </programlisting> |
| 512 | <para> |
| 513 | Querying the frequency in our case is relatively simple. Our radio card is |
| 514 | too dumb to let us query the signal strength so we remember our setting if |
| 515 | we know it. All we have to do is copy it to the user. |
| 516 | </para> |
| 517 | <programlisting> |
| 518 | |
| 519 | |
| 520 | case VIDIOCSFREQ: |
| 521 | { |
| 522 | u32 freq; |
| 523 | if(copy_from_user(arg, &freq, |
| 524 | sizeof(unsigned long))!=0) |
| 525 | return -EFAULT; |
| 526 | if(hardware_set_freq(freq)<0) |
| 527 | return -EINVAL; |
| 528 | current_freq = freq; |
| 529 | return 0; |
| 530 | } |
| 531 | |
| 532 | </programlisting> |
| 533 | <para> |
| 534 | Setting the frequency is a little more complex. We begin by copying the |
| 535 | desired frequency into kernel space. Next we call a hardware specific routine |
| 536 | to set the radio up. This might be as simple as some scaling and a few |
| 537 | writes to an I/O port. For most radio cards it turns out a good deal more |
| 538 | complicated and may involve programming things like a phase locked loop on |
| 539 | the card. This is what documentation is for. |
| 540 | </para> |
| 541 | <para> |
| 542 | The final set of operations we need to provide for our radio are the |
| 543 | volume controls. Not all radio cards can even do volume control. After all |
| 544 | there is a perfectly good volume control on the sound card. We will assume |
| 545 | our radio card has a simple 4 step volume control. |
| 546 | </para> |
| 547 | <para> |
| 548 | There are two ioctls with audio we need to support |
| 549 | </para> |
| 550 | <programlisting> |
| 551 | |
| 552 | static int current_volume=0; |
| 553 | |
| 554 | case VIDIOCGAUDIO: |
| 555 | { |
| 556 | struct video_audio v; |
| 557 | if(copy_from_user(&v, arg, sizeof(v))) |
| 558 | return -EFAULT; |
| 559 | if(v.audio != 0) |
| 560 | return -EINVAL; |
| 561 | v.volume = 16384*current_volume; |
| 562 | v.step = 16384; |
| 563 | strcpy(v.name, "Radio"); |
| 564 | v.mode = VIDEO_SOUND_MONO; |
| 565 | v.balance = 0; |
| 566 | v.base = 0; |
| 567 | v.treble = 0; |
| 568 | |
| 569 | if(copy_to_user(arg. &v, sizeof(v))) |
| 570 | return -EFAULT; |
| 571 | return 0; |
| 572 | } |
| 573 | |
| 574 | </programlisting> |
| 575 | <para> |
| 576 | Much like the tuner we start by copying the user structure into kernel |
| 577 | space. Again we check if the user has asked for a valid audio input. We have |
| 578 | only input 0 and we punt if they ask for another input. |
| 579 | </para> |
| 580 | <para> |
| 581 | Then we fill in the video_audio structure. This has the following format |
| 582 | </para> |
| 583 | <table frame="all"><title>struct video_audio fields</title> |
| 584 | <tgroup cols="2" align="left"> |
| 585 | <tbody> |
| 586 | <row> |
| 587 | <entry>audio</entry><entry>The input the user wishes to query</entry> |
| 588 | </row><row> |
| 589 | <entry>volume</entry><entry>The volume setting on a scale of 0-65535</entry> |
| 590 | </row><row> |
| 591 | <entry>base</entry><entry>The base level on a scale of 0-65535</entry> |
| 592 | </row><row> |
| 593 | <entry>treble</entry><entry>The treble level on a scale of 0-65535</entry> |
| 594 | </row><row> |
| 595 | <entry>flags</entry><entry>The features this audio device supports |
| 596 | </entry> |
| 597 | </row><row> |
| 598 | <entry>name</entry><entry>A text name to display to the user. We picked |
| 599 | "Radio" as it explains things quite nicely.</entry> |
| 600 | </row><row> |
| 601 | <entry>mode</entry><entry>The current reception mode for the audio |
| 602 | |
| 603 | We report MONO because our card is too stupid to know if it is in |
| 604 | mono or stereo. |
| 605 | </entry> |
| 606 | </row><row> |
| 607 | <entry>balance</entry><entry>The stereo balance on a scale of 0-65535, 32768 is |
| 608 | middle.</entry> |
| 609 | </row><row> |
| 610 | <entry>step</entry><entry>The step by which the volume control jumps. This is |
| 611 | used to help make it easy for applications to set |
| 612 | slider behaviour.</entry> |
| 613 | </row> |
| 614 | </tbody> |
| 615 | </tgroup> |
| 616 | </table> |
| 617 | |
| 618 | <table frame="all"><title>struct video_audio flags</title> |
| 619 | <tgroup cols="2" align="left"> |
| 620 | <tbody> |
| 621 | <row> |
| 622 | <entry>VIDEO_AUDIO_MUTE</entry><entry>The audio is currently muted. We |
| 623 | could fake this in our driver but we |
| 624 | choose not to bother.</entry> |
| 625 | </row><row> |
| 626 | <entry>VIDEO_AUDIO_MUTABLE</entry><entry>The input has a mute option</entry> |
| 627 | </row><row> |
| 628 | <entry>VIDEO_AUDIO_TREBLE</entry><entry>The input has a treble control</entry> |
| 629 | </row><row> |
| 630 | <entry>VIDEO_AUDIO_BASS</entry><entry>The input has a base control</entry> |
| 631 | </row> |
| 632 | </tbody> |
| 633 | </tgroup> |
| 634 | </table> |
| 635 | |
| 636 | <table frame="all"><title>struct video_audio modes</title> |
| 637 | <tgroup cols="2" align="left"> |
| 638 | <tbody> |
| 639 | <row> |
| 640 | <entry>VIDEO_SOUND_MONO</entry><entry>Mono sound</entry> |
| 641 | </row><row> |
| 642 | <entry>VIDEO_SOUND_STEREO</entry><entry>Stereo sound</entry> |
| 643 | </row><row> |
| 644 | <entry>VIDEO_SOUND_LANG1</entry><entry>Alternative language 1 (TV specific)</entry> |
| 645 | </row><row> |
| 646 | <entry>VIDEO_SOUND_LANG2</entry><entry>Alternative language 2 (TV specific)</entry> |
| 647 | </row> |
| 648 | </tbody> |
| 649 | </tgroup> |
| 650 | </table> |
| 651 | <para> |
| 652 | Having filled in the structure we copy it back to user space. |
| 653 | </para> |
| 654 | <para> |
| 655 | The VIDIOCSAUDIO ioctl allows the user to set the audio parameters in the |
| 656 | video_audio structure. The driver does its best to honour the request. |
| 657 | </para> |
| 658 | <programlisting> |
| 659 | |
| 660 | case VIDIOCSAUDIO: |
| 661 | { |
| 662 | struct video_audio v; |
| 663 | if(copy_from_user(&v, arg, sizeof(v))) |
| 664 | return -EFAULT; |
| 665 | if(v.audio) |
| 666 | return -EINVAL; |
| 667 | current_volume = v/16384; |
| 668 | hardware_set_volume(current_volume); |
| 669 | return 0; |
| 670 | } |
| 671 | |
| 672 | </programlisting> |
| 673 | <para> |
| 674 | In our case there is very little that the user can set. The volume is |
| 675 | basically the limit. Note that we could pretend to have a mute feature |
| 676 | by rewriting this to |
| 677 | </para> |
| 678 | <programlisting> |
| 679 | |
| 680 | case VIDIOCSAUDIO: |
| 681 | { |
| 682 | struct video_audio v; |
| 683 | if(copy_from_user(&v, arg, sizeof(v))) |
| 684 | return -EFAULT; |
| 685 | if(v.audio) |
| 686 | return -EINVAL; |
| 687 | current_volume = v/16384; |
| 688 | if(v.flags&VIDEO_AUDIO_MUTE) |
| 689 | hardware_set_volume(0); |
| 690 | else |
| 691 | hardware_set_volume(current_volume); |
| 692 | current_muted = v.flags & |
| 693 | VIDEO_AUDIO_MUTE; |
| 694 | return 0; |
| 695 | } |
| 696 | |
| 697 | </programlisting> |
| 698 | <para> |
| 699 | This with the corresponding changes to the VIDIOCGAUDIO code to report the |
| 700 | state of the mute flag we save and to report the card has a mute function, |
| 701 | will allow applications to use a mute facility with this card. It is |
| 702 | questionable whether this is a good idea however. User applications can already |
| 703 | fake this themselves and kernel space is precious. |
| 704 | </para> |
| 705 | <para> |
| 706 | We now have a working radio ioctl handler. So we just wrap up the function |
| 707 | </para> |
| 708 | <programlisting> |
| 709 | |
| 710 | |
| 711 | } |
| 712 | return -ENOIOCTLCMD; |
| 713 | } |
| 714 | |
| 715 | </programlisting> |
| 716 | <para> |
| 717 | and pass the Video4Linux layer back an error so that it knows we did not |
| 718 | understand the request we got passed. |
| 719 | </para> |
| 720 | </sect1> |
| 721 | <sect1 id="modradio"> |
| 722 | <title>Module Wrapper</title> |
| 723 | <para> |
| 724 | Finally we add in the usual module wrapping and the driver is done. |
| 725 | </para> |
| 726 | <programlisting> |
| 727 | |
| 728 | #ifndef MODULE |
| 729 | |
| 730 | static int io = 0x300; |
| 731 | |
| 732 | #else |
| 733 | |
| 734 | static int io = -1; |
| 735 | |
| 736 | #endif |
| 737 | |
| 738 | MODULE_AUTHOR("Alan Cox"); |
| 739 | MODULE_DESCRIPTION("A driver for an imaginary radio card."); |
| 740 | module_param(io, int, 0444); |
| 741 | MODULE_PARM_DESC(io, "I/O address of the card."); |
| 742 | |
| 743 | static int __init init(void) |
| 744 | { |
| 745 | if(io==-1) |
| 746 | { |
| 747 | printk(KERN_ERR |
| 748 | "You must set an I/O address with io=0x???\n"); |
| 749 | return -EINVAL; |
| 750 | } |
| 751 | return myradio_init(NULL); |
| 752 | } |
| 753 | |
| 754 | static void __exit cleanup(void) |
| 755 | { |
| 756 | video_unregister_device(&my_radio); |
| 757 | release_region(io, MY_IO_SIZE); |
| 758 | } |
| 759 | |
| 760 | module_init(init); |
| 761 | module_exit(cleanup); |
| 762 | |
| 763 | </programlisting> |
| 764 | <para> |
| 765 | In this example we set the IO base by default if the driver is compiled into |
| 766 | the kernel: you can still set it using "my_radio.irq" if this file is called <filename>my_radio.c</filename>. For the module we require the |
| 767 | user sets the parameter. We set io to a nonsense port (-1) so that we can |
| 768 | tell if the user supplied an io parameter or not. |
| 769 | </para> |
| 770 | <para> |
| 771 | We use MODULE_ defines to give an author for the card driver and a |
| 772 | description. We also use them to declare that io is an integer and it is the |
| 773 | address of the card, and can be read by anyone from sysfs. |
| 774 | </para> |
| 775 | <para> |
| 776 | The clean-up routine unregisters the video_device we registered, and frees |
| 777 | up the I/O space. Note that the unregister takes the actual video_device |
| 778 | structure as its argument. Unlike the file operations structure which can be |
| 779 | shared by all instances of a device a video_device structure as an actual |
| 780 | instance of the device. If you are registering multiple radio devices you |
| 781 | need to fill in one structure per device (most likely by setting up a |
| 782 | template and copying it to each of the actual device structures). |
| 783 | </para> |
| 784 | </sect1> |
| 785 | </chapter> |
| 786 | <chapter> |
| 787 | <title>Video Capture Devices</title> |
| 788 | <sect1 id="introvid"> |
| 789 | <title>Video Capture Device Types</title> |
| 790 | <para> |
| 791 | The video capture devices share the same interfaces as radio devices. In |
| 792 | order to explain the video capture interface I will use the example of a |
| 793 | camera that has no tuners or audio input. This keeps the example relatively |
| 794 | clean. To get both combine the two driver examples. |
| 795 | </para> |
| 796 | <para> |
| 797 | Video capture devices divide into four categories. A little technology |
| 798 | backgrounder. Full motion video even at television resolution (which is |
| 799 | actually fairly low) is pretty resource-intensive. You are continually |
| 800 | passing megabytes of data every second from the capture card to the display. |
| 801 | several alternative approaches have emerged because copying this through the |
| 802 | processor and the user program is a particularly bad idea . |
| 803 | </para> |
| 804 | <para> |
| 805 | The first is to add the television image onto the video output directly. |
| 806 | This is also how some 3D cards work. These basic cards can generally drop the |
| 807 | video into any chosen rectangle of the display. Cards like this, which |
| 808 | include most mpeg1 cards that used the feature connector, aren't very |
| 809 | friendly in a windowing environment. They don't understand windows or |
| 810 | clipping. The video window is always on the top of the display. |
| 811 | </para> |
| 812 | <para> |
| 813 | Chroma keying is a technique used by cards to get around this. It is an old |
| 814 | television mixing trick where you mark all the areas you wish to replace |
| 815 | with a single clear colour that isn't used in the image - TV people use an |
| 816 | incredibly bright blue while computing people often use a particularly |
| 817 | virulent purple. Bright blue occurs on the desktop. Anyone with virulent |
| 818 | purple windows has another problem besides their TV overlay. |
| 819 | </para> |
| 820 | <para> |
| 821 | The third approach is to copy the data from the capture card to the video |
| 822 | card, but to do it directly across the PCI bus. This relieves the processor |
| 823 | from doing the work but does require some smartness on the part of the video |
| 824 | capture chip, as well as a suitable video card. Programming this kind of |
| 825 | card and more so debugging it can be extremely tricky. There are some quite |
| 826 | complicated interactions with the display and you may also have to cope with |
| 827 | various chipset bugs that show up when PCI cards start talking to each |
| 828 | other. |
| 829 | </para> |
| 830 | <para> |
| 831 | To keep our example fairly simple we will assume a card that supports |
| 832 | overlaying a flat rectangular image onto the frame buffer output, and which |
| 833 | can also capture stuff into processor memory. |
| 834 | </para> |
| 835 | </sect1> |
| 836 | <sect1 id="regvid"> |
| 837 | <title>Registering Video Capture Devices</title> |
| 838 | <para> |
| 839 | This time we need to add more functions for our camera device. |
| 840 | </para> |
| 841 | <programlisting> |
| 842 | static struct video_device my_camera |
| 843 | { |
| 844 | "My Camera", |
| 845 | VID_TYPE_OVERLAY|VID_TYPE_SCALES|\ |
| 846 | VID_TYPE_CAPTURE|VID_TYPE_CHROMAKEY, |
| 847 | VID_HARDWARE_MYCAMERA, |
| 848 | camera_open. |
| 849 | camera_close, |
| 850 | camera_read, /* no read */ |
| 851 | NULL, /* no write */ |
| 852 | camera_poll, /* no poll */ |
| 853 | camera_ioctl, |
| 854 | NULL, /* no special init function */ |
| 855 | NULL /* no private data */ |
| 856 | }; |
| 857 | </programlisting> |
| 858 | <para> |
| 859 | We need a read() function which is used for capturing data from |
| 860 | the card, and we need a poll function so that a driver can wait for the next |
| 861 | frame to be captured. |
| 862 | </para> |
| 863 | <para> |
| 864 | We use the extra video capability flags that did not apply to the |
| 865 | radio interface. The video related flags are |
| 866 | </para> |
| 867 | <table frame="all"><title>Capture Capabilities</title> |
| 868 | <tgroup cols="2" align="left"> |
| 869 | <tbody> |
| 870 | <row> |
| 871 | <entry>VID_TYPE_CAPTURE</entry><entry>We support image capture</entry> |
| 872 | </row><row> |
| 873 | <entry>VID_TYPE_TELETEXT</entry><entry>A teletext capture device (vbi{n])</entry> |
| 874 | </row><row> |
| 875 | <entry>VID_TYPE_OVERLAY</entry><entry>The image can be directly overlaid onto the |
| 876 | frame buffer</entry> |
| 877 | </row><row> |
| 878 | <entry>VID_TYPE_CHROMAKEY</entry><entry>Chromakey can be used to select which parts |
| 879 | of the image to display</entry> |
| 880 | </row><row> |
| 881 | <entry>VID_TYPE_CLIPPING</entry><entry>It is possible to give the board a list of |
| 882 | rectangles to draw around. </entry> |
| 883 | </row><row> |
| 884 | <entry>VID_TYPE_FRAMERAM</entry><entry>The video capture goes into the video memory |
| 885 | and actually changes it. Applications need |
| 886 | to know this so they can clean up after the |
| 887 | card</entry> |
| 888 | </row><row> |
| 889 | <entry>VID_TYPE_SCALES</entry><entry>The image can be scaled to various sizes, |
| 890 | rather than being a single fixed size.</entry> |
| 891 | </row><row> |
| 892 | <entry>VID_TYPE_MONOCHROME</entry><entry>The capture will be monochrome. This isn't a |
| 893 | complete answer to the question since a mono |
| 894 | camera on a colour capture card will still |
| 895 | produce mono output.</entry> |
| 896 | </row><row> |
| 897 | <entry>VID_TYPE_SUBCAPTURE</entry><entry>The card allows only part of its field of |
| 898 | view to be captured. This enables |
| 899 | applications to avoid copying all of a large |
| 900 | image into memory when only some section is |
| 901 | relevant.</entry> |
| 902 | </row> |
| 903 | </tbody> |
| 904 | </tgroup> |
| 905 | </table> |
| 906 | <para> |
| 907 | We set VID_TYPE_CAPTURE so that we are seen as a capture card, |
| 908 | VID_TYPE_CHROMAKEY so the application knows it is time to draw in virulent |
| 909 | purple, and VID_TYPE_SCALES because we can be resized. |
| 910 | </para> |
| 911 | <para> |
| 912 | Our setup is fairly similar. This time we also want an interrupt line |
| 913 | for the 'frame captured' signal. Not all cards have this so some of them |
| 914 | cannot handle poll(). |
| 915 | </para> |
| 916 | <programlisting> |
| 917 | |
| 918 | |
| 919 | static int io = 0x320; |
| 920 | static int irq = 11; |
| 921 | |
| 922 | int __init mycamera_init(struct video_init *v) |
| 923 | { |
| 924 | if(!request_region(io, MY_IO_SIZE, "mycamera")) |
| 925 | { |
| 926 | printk(KERN_ERR |
| 927 | "mycamera: port 0x%03X is in use.\n", io); |
| 928 | return -EBUSY; |
| 929 | } |
| 930 | |
| 931 | if(video_device_register(&my_camera, |
| 932 | VFL_TYPE_GRABBER)==-1) { |
| 933 | release_region(io, MY_IO_SIZE); |
| 934 | return -EINVAL; |
| 935 | } |
| 936 | return 0; |
| 937 | } |
| 938 | |
| 939 | </programlisting> |
| 940 | <para> |
| 941 | This is little changed from the needs of the radio card. We specify |
| 942 | VFL_TYPE_GRABBER this time as we want to be allocated a /dev/video name. |
| 943 | </para> |
| 944 | </sect1> |
| 945 | <sect1 id="opvid"> |
| 946 | <title>Opening And Closing The Capture Device</title> |
| 947 | <programlisting> |
| 948 | |
| 949 | |
| 950 | static int users = 0; |
| 951 | |
Alexey Dobriyan | 32357988 | 2006-01-15 02:12:54 +0100 | [diff] [blame] | 952 | static int camera_open(struct video_device *dev, int flags) |
Linus Torvalds | 1da177e | 2005-04-16 15:20:36 -0700 | [diff] [blame] | 953 | { |
| 954 | if(users) |
| 955 | return -EBUSY; |
| 956 | if(request_irq(irq, camera_irq, 0, "camera", dev)<0) |
| 957 | return -EBUSY; |
| 958 | users++; |
| 959 | return 0; |
| 960 | } |
| 961 | |
| 962 | |
| 963 | static int camera_close(struct video_device *dev) |
| 964 | { |
| 965 | users--; |
| 966 | free_irq(irq, dev); |
| 967 | } |
| 968 | </programlisting> |
| 969 | <para> |
| 970 | The open and close routines are also quite similar. The only real change is |
| 971 | that we now request an interrupt for the camera device interrupt line. If we |
| 972 | cannot get the interrupt we report EBUSY to the application and give up. |
| 973 | </para> |
| 974 | </sect1> |
| 975 | <sect1 id="irqvid"> |
| 976 | <title>Interrupt Handling</title> |
| 977 | <para> |
| 978 | Our example handler is for an ISA bus device. If it was PCI you would be |
Thomas Gleixner | 6ce6c7f | 2006-07-01 19:29:47 -0700 | [diff] [blame] | 979 | able to share the interrupt and would have set IRQF_SHARED to indicate a |
Linus Torvalds | 1da177e | 2005-04-16 15:20:36 -0700 | [diff] [blame] | 980 | shared IRQ. We pass the device pointer as the interrupt routine argument. We |
| 981 | don't need to since we only support one card but doing this will make it |
| 982 | easier to upgrade the driver for multiple devices in the future. |
| 983 | </para> |
| 984 | <para> |
| 985 | Our interrupt routine needs to do little if we assume the card can simply |
| 986 | queue one frame to be read after it captures it. |
| 987 | </para> |
| 988 | <programlisting> |
| 989 | |
| 990 | |
| 991 | static struct wait_queue *capture_wait; |
| 992 | static int capture_ready = 0; |
| 993 | |
| 994 | static void camera_irq(int irq, void *dev_id, |
| 995 | struct pt_regs *regs) |
| 996 | { |
| 997 | capture_ready=1; |
| 998 | wake_up_interruptible(&capture_wait); |
| 999 | } |
| 1000 | </programlisting> |
| 1001 | <para> |
| 1002 | The interrupt handler is nice and simple for this card as we are assuming |
| 1003 | the card is buffering the frame for us. This means we have little to do but |
| 1004 | wake up anybody interested. We also set a capture_ready flag, as we may |
| 1005 | capture a frame before an application needs it. In this case we need to know |
| 1006 | that a frame is ready. If we had to collect the frame on the interrupt life |
| 1007 | would be more complex. |
| 1008 | </para> |
| 1009 | <para> |
| 1010 | The two new routines we need to supply are camera_read which returns a |
| 1011 | frame, and camera_poll which waits for a frame to become ready. |
| 1012 | </para> |
| 1013 | <programlisting> |
| 1014 | |
| 1015 | |
| 1016 | static int camera_poll(struct video_device *dev, |
| 1017 | struct file *file, struct poll_table *wait) |
| 1018 | { |
| 1019 | poll_wait(file, &capture_wait, wait); |
| 1020 | if(capture_read) |
| 1021 | return POLLIN|POLLRDNORM; |
| 1022 | return 0; |
| 1023 | } |
| 1024 | |
| 1025 | </programlisting> |
| 1026 | <para> |
| 1027 | Our wait queue for polling is the capture_wait queue. This will cause the |
| 1028 | task to be woken up by our camera_irq routine. We check capture_read to see |
| 1029 | if there is an image present and if so report that it is readable. |
| 1030 | </para> |
| 1031 | </sect1> |
| 1032 | <sect1 id="rdvid"> |
| 1033 | <title>Reading The Video Image</title> |
| 1034 | <programlisting> |
| 1035 | |
| 1036 | |
| 1037 | static long camera_read(struct video_device *dev, char *buf, |
| 1038 | unsigned long count) |
| 1039 | { |
| 1040 | struct wait_queue wait = { current, NULL }; |
| 1041 | u8 *ptr; |
| 1042 | int len; |
| 1043 | int i; |
| 1044 | |
| 1045 | add_wait_queue(&capture_wait, &wait); |
| 1046 | |
| 1047 | while(!capture_ready) |
| 1048 | { |
| 1049 | if(file->flags&O_NDELAY) |
| 1050 | { |
| 1051 | remove_wait_queue(&capture_wait, &wait); |
| 1052 | current->state = TASK_RUNNING; |
| 1053 | return -EWOULDBLOCK; |
| 1054 | } |
| 1055 | if(signal_pending(current)) |
| 1056 | { |
| 1057 | remove_wait_queue(&capture_wait, &wait); |
| 1058 | current->state = TASK_RUNNING; |
| 1059 | return -ERESTARTSYS; |
| 1060 | } |
| 1061 | schedule(); |
| 1062 | current->state = TASK_INTERRUPTIBLE; |
| 1063 | } |
| 1064 | remove_wait_queue(&capture_wait, &wait); |
| 1065 | current->state = TASK_RUNNING; |
| 1066 | |
| 1067 | </programlisting> |
| 1068 | <para> |
| 1069 | The first thing we have to do is to ensure that the application waits until |
| 1070 | the next frame is ready. The code here is almost identical to the mouse code |
| 1071 | we used earlier in this chapter. It is one of the common building blocks of |
| 1072 | Linux device driver code and probably one which you will find occurs in any |
| 1073 | drivers you write. |
| 1074 | </para> |
| 1075 | <para> |
| 1076 | We wait for a frame to be ready, or for a signal to interrupt our waiting. If a |
| 1077 | signal occurs we need to return from the system call so that the signal can |
| 1078 | be sent to the application itself. We also check to see if the user actually |
| 1079 | wanted to avoid waiting - ie if they are using non-blocking I/O and have other things |
| 1080 | to get on with. |
| 1081 | </para> |
| 1082 | <para> |
| 1083 | Next we copy the data from the card to the user application. This is rarely |
| 1084 | as easy as our example makes out. We will add capture_w, and capture_h here |
| 1085 | to hold the width and height of the captured image. We assume the card only |
| 1086 | supports 24bit RGB for now. |
| 1087 | </para> |
| 1088 | <programlisting> |
| 1089 | |
| 1090 | |
| 1091 | |
| 1092 | capture_ready = 0; |
| 1093 | |
| 1094 | ptr=(u8 *)buf; |
| 1095 | len = capture_w * 3 * capture_h; /* 24bit RGB */ |
| 1096 | |
| 1097 | if(len>count) |
| 1098 | len=count; /* Doesn't all fit */ |
| 1099 | |
| 1100 | for(i=0; i<len; i++) |
| 1101 | { |
| 1102 | put_user(inb(io+IMAGE_DATA), ptr); |
| 1103 | ptr++; |
| 1104 | } |
| 1105 | |
| 1106 | hardware_restart_capture(); |
| 1107 | |
| 1108 | return i; |
| 1109 | } |
| 1110 | |
| 1111 | </programlisting> |
| 1112 | <para> |
| 1113 | For a real hardware device you would try to avoid the loop with put_user(). |
| 1114 | Each call to put_user() has a time overhead checking whether the accesses to user |
| 1115 | space are allowed. It would be better to read a line into a temporary buffer |
| 1116 | then copy this to user space in one go. |
| 1117 | </para> |
| 1118 | <para> |
| 1119 | Having captured the image and put it into user space we can kick the card to |
| 1120 | get the next frame acquired. |
| 1121 | </para> |
| 1122 | </sect1> |
| 1123 | <sect1 id="iocvid"> |
| 1124 | <title>Video Ioctl Handling</title> |
| 1125 | <para> |
| 1126 | As with the radio driver the major control interface is via the ioctl() |
| 1127 | function. Video capture devices support the same tuner calls as a radio |
| 1128 | device and also support additional calls to control how the video functions |
| 1129 | are handled. In this simple example the card has no tuners to avoid making |
| 1130 | the code complex. |
| 1131 | </para> |
| 1132 | <programlisting> |
| 1133 | |
| 1134 | |
| 1135 | |
| 1136 | static int camera_ioctl(struct video_device *dev, unsigned int cmd, void *arg) |
| 1137 | { |
| 1138 | switch(cmd) |
| 1139 | { |
| 1140 | case VIDIOCGCAP: |
| 1141 | { |
| 1142 | struct video_capability v; |
| 1143 | v.type = VID_TYPE_CAPTURE|\ |
| 1144 | VID_TYPE_CHROMAKEY|\ |
| 1145 | VID_TYPE_SCALES|\ |
| 1146 | VID_TYPE_OVERLAY; |
| 1147 | v.channels = 1; |
| 1148 | v.audios = 0; |
| 1149 | v.maxwidth = 640; |
| 1150 | v.minwidth = 16; |
| 1151 | v.maxheight = 480; |
| 1152 | v.minheight = 16; |
| 1153 | strcpy(v.name, "My Camera"); |
| 1154 | if(copy_to_user(arg, &v, sizeof(v))) |
| 1155 | return -EFAULT; |
| 1156 | return 0; |
| 1157 | } |
| 1158 | |
| 1159 | |
| 1160 | </programlisting> |
| 1161 | <para> |
| 1162 | The first ioctl we must support and which all video capture and radio |
| 1163 | devices are required to support is VIDIOCGCAP. This behaves exactly the same |
| 1164 | as with a radio device. This time, however, we report the extra capabilities |
| 1165 | we outlined earlier on when defining our video_dev structure. |
| 1166 | </para> |
| 1167 | <para> |
| 1168 | We now set the video flags saying that we support overlay, capture, |
| 1169 | scaling and chromakey. We also report size limits - our smallest image is |
| 1170 | 16x16 pixels, our largest is 640x480. |
| 1171 | </para> |
| 1172 | <para> |
| 1173 | To keep things simple we report no audio and no tuning capabilities at all. |
| 1174 | </para> |
| 1175 | <programlisting> |
| 1176 | |
| 1177 | case VIDIOCGCHAN: |
| 1178 | { |
| 1179 | struct video_channel v; |
| 1180 | if(copy_from_user(&v, arg, sizeof(v))) |
| 1181 | return -EFAULT; |
| 1182 | if(v.channel != 0) |
| 1183 | return -EINVAL; |
| 1184 | v.flags = 0; |
| 1185 | v.tuners = 0; |
| 1186 | v.type = VIDEO_TYPE_CAMERA; |
| 1187 | v.norm = VIDEO_MODE_AUTO; |
| 1188 | strcpy(v.name, "Camera Input");break; |
| 1189 | if(copy_to_user(&v, arg, sizeof(v))) |
| 1190 | return -EFAULT; |
| 1191 | return 0; |
| 1192 | } |
| 1193 | |
| 1194 | |
| 1195 | </programlisting> |
| 1196 | <para> |
| 1197 | This follows what is very much the standard way an ioctl handler looks |
| 1198 | in Linux. We copy the data into a kernel space variable and we check that the |
| 1199 | request is valid (in this case that the input is 0). Finally we copy the |
| 1200 | camera info back to the user. |
| 1201 | </para> |
| 1202 | <para> |
| 1203 | The VIDIOCGCHAN ioctl allows a user to ask about video channels (that is |
| 1204 | inputs to the video card). Our example card has a single camera input. The |
| 1205 | fields in the structure are |
| 1206 | </para> |
| 1207 | <table frame="all"><title>struct video_channel fields</title> |
| 1208 | <tgroup cols="2" align="left"> |
| 1209 | <tbody> |
| 1210 | <row> |
| 1211 | |
| 1212 | <entry>channel</entry><entry>The channel number we are selecting</entry> |
| 1213 | </row><row> |
| 1214 | <entry>name</entry><entry>The name for this channel. This is intended |
| 1215 | to describe the port to the user. |
| 1216 | Appropriate names are therefore things like |
| 1217 | "Camera" "SCART input"</entry> |
| 1218 | </row><row> |
| 1219 | <entry>flags</entry><entry>Channel properties</entry> |
| 1220 | </row><row> |
| 1221 | <entry>type</entry><entry>Input type</entry> |
| 1222 | </row><row> |
| 1223 | <entry>norm</entry><entry>The current television encoding being used |
| 1224 | if relevant for this channel. |
| 1225 | </entry> |
| 1226 | </row> |
| 1227 | </tbody> |
| 1228 | </tgroup> |
| 1229 | </table> |
| 1230 | <table frame="all"><title>struct video_channel flags</title> |
| 1231 | <tgroup cols="2" align="left"> |
| 1232 | <tbody> |
| 1233 | <row> |
| 1234 | <entry>VIDEO_VC_TUNER</entry><entry>Channel has a tuner.</entry> |
| 1235 | </row><row> |
| 1236 | <entry>VIDEO_VC_AUDIO</entry><entry>Channel has audio.</entry> |
| 1237 | </row> |
| 1238 | </tbody> |
| 1239 | </tgroup> |
| 1240 | </table> |
| 1241 | <table frame="all"><title>struct video_channel types</title> |
| 1242 | <tgroup cols="2" align="left"> |
| 1243 | <tbody> |
| 1244 | <row> |
| 1245 | <entry>VIDEO_TYPE_TV</entry><entry>Television input.</entry> |
| 1246 | </row><row> |
| 1247 | <entry>VIDEO_TYPE_CAMERA</entry><entry>Fixed camera input.</entry> |
| 1248 | </row><row> |
| 1249 | <entry>0</entry><entry>Type is unknown.</entry> |
| 1250 | </row> |
| 1251 | </tbody> |
| 1252 | </tgroup> |
| 1253 | </table> |
| 1254 | <table frame="all"><title>struct video_channel norms</title> |
| 1255 | <tgroup cols="2" align="left"> |
| 1256 | <tbody> |
| 1257 | <row> |
| 1258 | <entry>VIDEO_MODE_PAL</entry><entry>PAL encoded Television</entry> |
| 1259 | </row><row> |
| 1260 | <entry>VIDEO_MODE_NTSC</entry><entry>NTSC (US) encoded Television</entry> |
| 1261 | </row><row> |
| 1262 | <entry>VIDEO_MODE_SECAM</entry><entry>SECAM (French) Television </entry> |
| 1263 | </row><row> |
| 1264 | <entry>VIDEO_MODE_AUTO</entry><entry>Automatic switching, or format does not |
| 1265 | matter</entry> |
| 1266 | </row> |
| 1267 | </tbody> |
| 1268 | </tgroup> |
| 1269 | </table> |
| 1270 | <para> |
| 1271 | The corresponding VIDIOCSCHAN ioctl allows a user to change channel and to |
| 1272 | request the norm is changed - for example to switch between a PAL or an NTSC |
| 1273 | format camera. |
| 1274 | </para> |
| 1275 | <programlisting> |
| 1276 | |
| 1277 | |
| 1278 | case VIDIOCSCHAN: |
| 1279 | { |
| 1280 | struct video_channel v; |
| 1281 | if(copy_from_user(&v, arg, sizeof(v))) |
| 1282 | return -EFAULT; |
| 1283 | if(v.channel != 0) |
| 1284 | return -EINVAL; |
| 1285 | if(v.norm != VIDEO_MODE_AUTO) |
| 1286 | return -EINVAL; |
| 1287 | return 0; |
| 1288 | } |
| 1289 | |
| 1290 | |
| 1291 | </programlisting> |
| 1292 | <para> |
| 1293 | The implementation of this call in our driver is remarkably easy. Because we |
| 1294 | are assuming fixed format hardware we need only check that the user has not |
| 1295 | tried to change anything. |
| 1296 | </para> |
| 1297 | <para> |
| 1298 | The user also needs to be able to configure and adjust the picture they are |
| 1299 | seeing. This is much like adjusting a television set. A user application |
| 1300 | also needs to know the palette being used so that it knows how to display |
| 1301 | the image that has been captured. The VIDIOCGPICT and VIDIOCSPICT ioctl |
| 1302 | calls provide this information. |
| 1303 | </para> |
| 1304 | <programlisting> |
| 1305 | |
| 1306 | |
| 1307 | case VIDIOCGPICT |
| 1308 | { |
| 1309 | struct video_picture v; |
| 1310 | v.brightness = hardware_brightness(); |
| 1311 | v.hue = hardware_hue(); |
| 1312 | v.colour = hardware_saturation(); |
| 1313 | v.contrast = hardware_brightness(); |
| 1314 | /* Not settable */ |
| 1315 | v.whiteness = 32768; |
| 1316 | v.depth = 24; /* 24bit */ |
| 1317 | v.palette = VIDEO_PALETTE_RGB24; |
| 1318 | if(copy_to_user(&v, arg, |
| 1319 | sizeof(v))) |
| 1320 | return -EFAULT; |
| 1321 | return 0; |
| 1322 | } |
| 1323 | |
| 1324 | |
| 1325 | </programlisting> |
| 1326 | <para> |
| 1327 | The brightness, hue, color, and contrast provide the picture controls that |
| 1328 | are akin to a conventional television. Whiteness provides additional |
| 1329 | control for greyscale images. All of these values are scaled between 0-65535 |
| 1330 | and have 32768 as the mid point setting. The scaling means that applications |
| 1331 | do not have to worry about the capability range of the hardware but can let |
| 1332 | it make a best effort attempt. |
| 1333 | </para> |
| 1334 | <para> |
| 1335 | Our depth is 24, as this is in bits. We will be returning RGB24 format. This |
| 1336 | has one byte of red, then one of green, then one of blue. This then repeats |
| 1337 | for every other pixel in the image. The other common formats the interface |
| 1338 | defines are |
| 1339 | </para> |
| 1340 | <table frame="all"><title>Framebuffer Encodings</title> |
| 1341 | <tgroup cols="2" align="left"> |
| 1342 | <tbody> |
| 1343 | <row> |
| 1344 | <entry>GREY</entry><entry>Linear greyscale. This is for simple cameras and the |
| 1345 | like</entry> |
| 1346 | </row><row> |
| 1347 | <entry>RGB565</entry><entry>The top 5 bits hold 32 red levels, the next six bits |
| 1348 | hold green and the low 5 bits hold blue. </entry> |
| 1349 | </row><row> |
| 1350 | <entry>RGB555</entry><entry>The top bit is clear. The red green and blue levels |
| 1351 | each occupy five bits.</entry> |
| 1352 | </row> |
| 1353 | </tbody> |
| 1354 | </tgroup> |
| 1355 | </table> |
| 1356 | <para> |
| 1357 | Additional modes are support for YUV capture formats. These are common for |
| 1358 | TV and video conferencing applications. |
| 1359 | </para> |
| 1360 | <para> |
| 1361 | The VIDIOCSPICT ioctl allows a user to set some of the picture parameters. |
| 1362 | Exactly which ones are supported depends heavily on the card itself. It is |
| 1363 | possible to support many modes and effects in software. In general doing |
| 1364 | this in the kernel is a bad idea. Video capture is a performance-sensitive |
| 1365 | application and the programs can often do better if they aren't being |
| 1366 | 'helped' by an overkeen driver writer. Thus for our device we will report |
| 1367 | RGB24 only and refuse to allow a change. |
| 1368 | </para> |
| 1369 | <programlisting> |
| 1370 | |
| 1371 | |
| 1372 | case VIDIOCSPICT: |
| 1373 | { |
| 1374 | struct video_picture v; |
| 1375 | if(copy_from_user(&v, arg, sizeof(v))) |
| 1376 | return -EFAULT; |
| 1377 | if(v.depth!=24 || |
| 1378 | v.palette != VIDEO_PALETTE_RGB24) |
| 1379 | return -EINVAL; |
| 1380 | set_hardware_brightness(v.brightness); |
| 1381 | set_hardware_hue(v.hue); |
| 1382 | set_hardware_saturation(v.colour); |
| 1383 | set_hardware_brightness(v.contrast); |
| 1384 | return 0; |
| 1385 | } |
| 1386 | |
| 1387 | |
| 1388 | </programlisting> |
| 1389 | <para> |
| 1390 | We check the user has not tried to change the palette or the depth. We do |
| 1391 | not want to carry out some of the changes and then return an error. This may |
| 1392 | confuse the application which will be assuming no change occurred. |
| 1393 | </para> |
| 1394 | <para> |
| 1395 | In much the same way as you need to be able to set the picture controls to |
| 1396 | get the right capture images, many cards need to know what they are |
| 1397 | displaying onto when generating overlay output. In some cases getting this |
| 1398 | wrong even makes a nasty mess or may crash the computer. For that reason |
| 1399 | the VIDIOCSBUF ioctl used to set up the frame buffer information may well |
| 1400 | only be usable by root. |
| 1401 | </para> |
| 1402 | <para> |
| 1403 | We will assume our card is one of the old ISA devices with feature connector |
| 1404 | and only supports a couple of standard video modes. Very common for older |
| 1405 | cards although the PCI devices are way smarter than this. |
| 1406 | </para> |
| 1407 | <programlisting> |
| 1408 | |
| 1409 | |
| 1410 | static struct video_buffer capture_fb; |
| 1411 | |
| 1412 | case VIDIOCGFBUF: |
| 1413 | { |
| 1414 | if(copy_to_user(arg, &capture_fb, |
| 1415 | sizeof(capture_fb))) |
| 1416 | return -EFAULT; |
| 1417 | return 0; |
| 1418 | |
| 1419 | } |
| 1420 | |
| 1421 | |
| 1422 | </programlisting> |
| 1423 | <para> |
| 1424 | We keep the frame buffer information in the format the ioctl uses. This |
| 1425 | makes it nice and easy to work with in the ioctl calls. |
| 1426 | </para> |
| 1427 | <programlisting> |
| 1428 | |
| 1429 | case VIDIOCSFBUF: |
| 1430 | { |
| 1431 | struct video_buffer v; |
| 1432 | |
| 1433 | if(!capable(CAP_SYS_ADMIN)) |
| 1434 | return -EPERM; |
| 1435 | |
| 1436 | if(copy_from_user(&v, arg, sizeof(v))) |
| 1437 | return -EFAULT; |
| 1438 | if(v.width!=320 && v.width!=640) |
| 1439 | return -EINVAL; |
| 1440 | if(v.height!=200 && v.height!=240 |
| 1441 | && v.height!=400 |
| 1442 | && v.height !=480) |
| 1443 | return -EINVAL; |
| 1444 | memcpy(&capture_fb, &v, sizeof(v)); |
| 1445 | hardware_set_fb(&v); |
| 1446 | return 0; |
| 1447 | } |
| 1448 | |
| 1449 | |
| 1450 | |
| 1451 | </programlisting> |
| 1452 | <para> |
| 1453 | The capable() function checks a user has the required capability. The Linux |
| 1454 | operating system has a set of about 30 capabilities indicating privileged |
| 1455 | access to services. The default set up gives the superuser (uid 0) all of |
| 1456 | them and nobody else has any. |
| 1457 | </para> |
| 1458 | <para> |
| 1459 | We check that the user has the SYS_ADMIN capability, that is they are |
| 1460 | allowed to operate as the machine administrator. We don't want anyone but |
| 1461 | the administrator making a mess of the display. |
| 1462 | </para> |
| 1463 | <para> |
| 1464 | Next we check for standard PC video modes (320 or 640 wide with either |
| 1465 | EGA or VGA depths). If the mode is not a standard video mode we reject it as |
| 1466 | not supported by our card. If the mode is acceptable we save it so that |
| 1467 | VIDIOCFBUF will give the right answer next time it is called. The |
| 1468 | hardware_set_fb() function is some undescribed card specific function to |
| 1469 | program the card for the desired mode. |
| 1470 | </para> |
| 1471 | <para> |
| 1472 | Before the driver can display an overlay window it needs to know where the |
| 1473 | window should be placed, and also how large it should be. If the card |
| 1474 | supports clipping it needs to know which rectangles to omit from the |
| 1475 | display. The video_window structure is used to describe the way the image |
| 1476 | should be displayed. |
| 1477 | </para> |
| 1478 | <table frame="all"><title>struct video_window fields</title> |
| 1479 | <tgroup cols="2" align="left"> |
| 1480 | <tbody> |
| 1481 | <row> |
| 1482 | <entry>width</entry><entry>The width in pixels of the desired image. The card |
| 1483 | may use a smaller size if this size is not available</entry> |
| 1484 | </row><row> |
| 1485 | <entry>height</entry><entry>The height of the image. The card may use a smaller |
| 1486 | size if this size is not available.</entry> |
| 1487 | </row><row> |
| 1488 | <entry>x</entry><entry> The X position of the top left of the window. This |
| 1489 | is in pixels relative to the left hand edge of the |
| 1490 | picture. Not all cards can display images aligned on |
| 1491 | any pixel boundary. If the position is unsuitable |
| 1492 | the card adjusts the image right and reduces the |
| 1493 | width.</entry> |
| 1494 | </row><row> |
| 1495 | <entry>y</entry><entry> The Y position of the top left of the window. This |
| 1496 | is counted in pixels relative to the top edge of the |
| 1497 | picture. As with the width if the card cannot |
| 1498 | display starting on this line it will adjust the |
| 1499 | values.</entry> |
| 1500 | </row><row> |
| 1501 | <entry>chromakey</entry><entry>The colour (expressed in RGB32 format) for the |
| 1502 | chromakey colour if chroma keying is being used. </entry> |
| 1503 | </row><row> |
| 1504 | <entry>clips</entry><entry>An array of rectangles that must not be drawn |
| 1505 | over.</entry> |
| 1506 | </row><row> |
| 1507 | <entry>clipcount</entry><entry>The number of clips in this array.</entry> |
| 1508 | </row> |
| 1509 | </tbody> |
| 1510 | </tgroup> |
| 1511 | </table> |
| 1512 | <para> |
| 1513 | Each clip is a struct video_clip which has the following fields |
| 1514 | </para> |
| 1515 | <table frame="all"><title>video_clip fields</title> |
| 1516 | <tgroup cols="2" align="left"> |
| 1517 | <tbody> |
| 1518 | <row> |
| 1519 | <entry>x, y</entry><entry>Co-ordinates relative to the display</entry> |
| 1520 | </row><row> |
| 1521 | <entry>width, height</entry><entry>Width and height in pixels</entry> |
| 1522 | </row><row> |
| 1523 | <entry>next</entry><entry>A spare field for the application to use</entry> |
| 1524 | </row> |
| 1525 | </tbody> |
| 1526 | </tgroup> |
| 1527 | </table> |
| 1528 | <para> |
| 1529 | The driver is required to ensure it always draws in the area requested or a smaller area, and that it never draws in any of the areas that are clipped. |
| 1530 | This may well mean it has to leave alone. small areas the application wished to be |
| 1531 | drawn. |
| 1532 | </para> |
| 1533 | <para> |
| 1534 | Our example card uses chromakey so does not have to address most of the |
| 1535 | clipping. We will add a video_window structure to our global variables to |
| 1536 | remember our parameters, as we did with the frame buffer. |
| 1537 | </para> |
| 1538 | <programlisting> |
| 1539 | |
| 1540 | |
| 1541 | case VIDIOCGWIN: |
| 1542 | { |
| 1543 | if(copy_to_user(arg, &capture_win, |
| 1544 | sizeof(capture_win))) |
| 1545 | return -EFAULT; |
| 1546 | return 0; |
| 1547 | } |
| 1548 | |
| 1549 | |
| 1550 | case VIDIOCSWIN: |
| 1551 | { |
| 1552 | struct video_window v; |
| 1553 | if(copy_from_user(&v, arg, sizeof(v))) |
| 1554 | return -EFAULT; |
| 1555 | if(v.width > 640 || v.height > 480) |
| 1556 | return -EINVAL; |
| 1557 | if(v.width < 16 || v.height < 16) |
| 1558 | return -EINVAL; |
| 1559 | hardware_set_key(v.chromakey); |
| 1560 | hardware_set_window(v); |
| 1561 | memcpy(&capture_win, &v, sizeof(v)); |
| 1562 | capture_w = v.width; |
| 1563 | capture_h = v.height; |
| 1564 | return 0; |
| 1565 | } |
| 1566 | |
| 1567 | |
| 1568 | </programlisting> |
| 1569 | <para> |
| 1570 | Because we are using Chromakey our setup is fairly simple. Mostly we have to |
| 1571 | check the values are sane and load them into the capture card. |
| 1572 | </para> |
| 1573 | <para> |
| 1574 | With all the setup done we can now turn on the actual capture/overlay. This |
| 1575 | is done with the VIDIOCCAPTURE ioctl. This takes a single integer argument |
| 1576 | where 0 is on and 1 is off. |
| 1577 | </para> |
| 1578 | <programlisting> |
| 1579 | |
| 1580 | |
| 1581 | case VIDIOCCAPTURE: |
| 1582 | { |
| 1583 | int v; |
| 1584 | if(get_user(v, (int *)arg)) |
| 1585 | return -EFAULT; |
| 1586 | if(v==0) |
| 1587 | hardware_capture_off(); |
| 1588 | else |
| 1589 | { |
| 1590 | if(capture_fb.width == 0 |
| 1591 | || capture_w == 0) |
| 1592 | return -EINVAL; |
| 1593 | hardware_capture_on(); |
| 1594 | } |
| 1595 | return 0; |
| 1596 | } |
| 1597 | |
| 1598 | |
| 1599 | </programlisting> |
| 1600 | <para> |
| 1601 | We grab the flag from user space and either enable or disable according to |
| 1602 | its value. There is one small corner case we have to consider here. Suppose |
| 1603 | that the capture was requested before the video window or the frame buffer |
| 1604 | had been set up. In those cases there will be unconfigured fields in our |
| 1605 | card data, as well as unconfigured hardware settings. We check for this case and |
| 1606 | return an error if the frame buffer or the capture window width is zero. |
| 1607 | </para> |
| 1608 | <programlisting> |
| 1609 | |
| 1610 | |
| 1611 | default: |
| 1612 | return -ENOIOCTLCMD; |
| 1613 | } |
| 1614 | } |
| 1615 | </programlisting> |
| 1616 | <para> |
| 1617 | |
| 1618 | We don't need to support any other ioctls, so if we get this far, it is time |
| 1619 | to tell the video layer that we don't now what the user is talking about. |
| 1620 | </para> |
| 1621 | </sect1> |
| 1622 | <sect1 id="endvid"> |
| 1623 | <title>Other Functionality</title> |
| 1624 | <para> |
| 1625 | The Video4Linux layer supports additional features, including a high |
| 1626 | performance mmap() based capture mode and capturing part of the image. |
| 1627 | These features are out of the scope of the book. You should however have enough |
| 1628 | example code to implement most simple video4linux devices for radio and TV |
| 1629 | cards. |
| 1630 | </para> |
| 1631 | </sect1> |
| 1632 | </chapter> |
| 1633 | <chapter id="bugs"> |
| 1634 | <title>Known Bugs And Assumptions</title> |
| 1635 | <para> |
| 1636 | <variablelist> |
| 1637 | <varlistentry><term>Multiple Opens</term> |
| 1638 | <listitem> |
| 1639 | <para> |
| 1640 | The driver assumes multiple opens should not be allowed. A driver |
| 1641 | can work around this but not cleanly. |
| 1642 | </para> |
| 1643 | </listitem></varlistentry> |
| 1644 | |
| 1645 | <varlistentry><term>API Deficiencies</term> |
| 1646 | <listitem> |
| 1647 | <para> |
| 1648 | The existing API poorly reflects compression capable devices. There |
| 1649 | are plans afoot to merge V4L, V4L2 and some other ideas into a |
| 1650 | better interface. |
| 1651 | </para> |
| 1652 | </listitem></varlistentry> |
| 1653 | </variablelist> |
| 1654 | |
| 1655 | </para> |
| 1656 | </chapter> |
| 1657 | |
| 1658 | <chapter id="pubfunctions"> |
| 1659 | <title>Public Functions Provided</title> |
| 1660 | !Edrivers/media/video/videodev.c |
| 1661 | </chapter> |
| 1662 | |
| 1663 | </book> |